1: Written Charinese
A a
|
/a/
|
J j
|
/ʒ/
|
R r
|
/r/
|
Tj tj
|
/dʒ/
|
B b
|
/b/
|
K k
|
/k/
|
S s
|
/s/
|
Lh lh
|
/ɬ/
|
C c
|
/ʃ/ (/k/ in some
foreign loanwords)
|
L l
|
/l/
|
T t
|
/t/
|
Lj lj
|
/ɮ/
|
D d
|
/d/
|
M m
|
/m/
|
U u
|
/ʊ̈/
|
Qg qg
|
/G/
|
E e
|
/e/
|
N n
|
/n/
|
V v
|
/v/
|
W w
|
/y/
|
F f
|
/f/
|
O o
|
/o/
|
X x
|
/ɣ/
|
*This digraph is an
alternate form of /tʃ/, far more rarely used than its counterpart
|
G g
|
/g/
|
Ö ö
|
/ɔ/
|
Z z
|
/z/
|
H h
|
/x/ (/ɦ/ before
vowels)
|
P p
|
/p/
|
Tc tc
|
/tʃ/
|
I i
|
/i/
|
Q q
|
/q/
|
Ch ch
|
/tʃ/*
|
Ligatures and
secondary characters
4 ligatures, to represent important words in Charinese,
exist also:
Word
|
Meaning
|
Ligature
|
Yas
|
To/for
|
Ɏ ɏ
|
Yo
|
From/against
|
Ë ë
|
Ha
|
Direct object, also indicates future
|
Ħ ħ
|
The ligature for “Yo” derives from the Cyrillic letter of
the same name, since the Cyrillic alphabet was, for the literate elite, the
national script of Char-Moyutji until the 1970s.
2: Noun declension, prepositions and pronouns
2.1 Cases
and prepositions
2.1.1 Absolutive
case & “Ha”
The standard noun case for the subject and object nouns.
Object nouns, whenever they appear, are always preceded by the article “ha”.
“Ha” has other uses and variants, which will be discussed later on.
2.1.2 Predicative/essive
case
The predicative is used with predicate expressions – the
verb “to be”. It is also used with adjectives, and is used to convert nouns to
adjectives as well e.g. “Lju” = gold becomes “Ljuimi” = golden/ is gold.
2.1.3 Benefactive
case – “Yas”,“Yo” and “Yem”
The benefactive is used with most indirect object nouns – it
is used to show the action is being instigated for a certain object, either
negatively or positively.
“Yas” is the positive benefactive preposition – it shows a
meaning equivalent to “for/towards” –e.g. “Yas Tjakobi” means “for/to Jacob”.
“Yo” is negative, showing a meaning equivalent to “from” or
“against”.
“Yem” shows “from”, but in a positive way – e.g. “Yem
Anglati” = “from England”.
2.1.4 Transient
case
The transient case is used to demonstrate the general
movement of a noun, for example, “La Tjakobu” = “I move Jacob”.
2.1.5 The preposition
“i”
“I” is used as a preposition to indicate a noun or person
being addressed. It is similar to the function of the vocative case, or the
particle “o” in Old English.
2.2
Declensions and the possessed form
2.2.1 Possessed
form
This is the word form that is used to show a noun that is
possessed by another noun. The noun possessing the noun is shown before the
possessed noun – for pronouns, this is:
|
Tjakobe = Jacob
|
My/Our
|
Tjakobo
|
Your
|
Pa Tjakobo
|
He/She/Its/Their
|
Yas Tjakobo
|
The possessed form is not usually considered a case, since
the “-o” stem does not change across declension or whether the noun is distant
or proximal.
2.2.2 Declension
patterns
There are three patterns of declension. The distant forms
are used to describe nouns that are located far from the speakers – the
proximal forms are used for nouns that are closer.
There are no real rules for choosing the nouns belonging to
the case system.
|
Declension 1 = Tjakobe - Jacob
|
Declension 2 = Saljaju - Mouse
|
Declension 1 = Ma - Cat
|
|
Proximal
|
Distant
|
Proximal/Distant
|
Proximal
|
Distant
|
Abs
|
Tjakobe
|
Tjakobe
|
Saljaju
|
Ma
|
Ma
|
Pred
|
Tjakobmi
|
Tjakobma
|
Saljajimi
|
Mam’
|
Mam’
|
Ben
|
Tjakobi
|
Tjakobi
|
Saljaji
|
Mai
|
Maa
|
Tst
|
Tjakobu
|
Tjakoba
|
Saljaja
|
Mau
|
Mau
|
Possessed form
|
Tjakobo
|
Tjakobo
|
Saljajo
|
Mao
|
Mao
|
2.3 Pronouns
|
Absolutive
|
Essive/Predicative
|
Positive benefactive
|
Negative benefactive
|
1st person sing.
|
La
|
Ul
|
Lai
|
Lu
|
2nd person
|
Ka
|
Ku
|
Kai
|
Kau
|
3rd person masc.
|
Os
|
Se
|
Sak
|
Set
|
3rd person fem./plu.
|
Otj
|
Je
|
Ja
|
Tjat
|
3rd person neut.
|
Or
|
Ra
|
Ru
|
Rat
|
1st person plu.
|
Lau
|
Li
|
Las
|
Lu
|
3: Verb
system
3.1 Basic
verb conjugation
3.1.1 How verbs
function
Aside from a few pronouns, “Yas”, “Yem” and a few other
nouns, only verbs can end in consonants, and all nouns must end in vowels. That
is why, in the word “Mam’”, seen above in the declension section.
Infinitives do not exist – when these are usually used in
English, instead use the appropriate conjugation for the section.
3.1.2 Present
habitual conjugation
Most verbs are pronoun-dropping – since the suffix changes
for all pronouns, the subject pronoun can be dropped, eliminating the need to
specify the object. However, a few verbs are object-changing – instead, the
suffix of the verbs changes to show this, thereby forming the reverse process
of the subject-changers. For example, the verb “to love”:
Qatac = to love
me
Qatac
|
… love me.
|
Qatat
|
… love you.
|
Qatal
|
… love him.
|
Qatas
|
… love her/them.
|
Qatak
|
… love it.
|
Qataj
|
… love us.
|
And a subject-changer:
Hamak = I sit
Hamak
|
I sit
|
Hamas
|
You sit
|
Hamar
|
He sits
|
Hamac
|
She/they sit
|
Hamal
|
It sits
|
Hamaj
|
We sit
|
|
|
3.2 Classes
of verbs
Aside from these two types, there are three classes of
verbs:
3.2.1 Verbs of
motion
These are verbs which represent a physical movement of some
kind, such as falling or crossing. Some of these verbs also represent
prepositions and intransitive verbs, such as “to run along”.
A variety of additional morphemes, such as the speed at
which a motion takes place or the number of additional phrases extending from
it, can be added.
3.2.2 Verbs of
action
More like a traditional verb. These also tend to contain
their object nouns – for example “Tatcanup” = “I catch fish”, and “Xlagap” = “I
open a box”.
3.2.3 Verbs of
thought
Internalized verbs, related to emotions. Also used for
actions within any object.
3.3 Other
tenses
3.3.1 The use of
“Ha”
As well as indicating the direct object, “ha” comes before
verbs to indicate the future habitual tense.
3.3.2 “Hav” and
“Havke”
Here is a chart showing the use of “hav” and “havke”, two
derivates:
|
Before verb
|
After verb
|
“Ha”
|
Future habitual
|
Present habitual
|
“Hav”
|
To do something later today
|
To do something today
|
“Havke”
|
Past habitual (often to do something yesterday)
|
To do something tomorrow
|
3.4 Verb
stems and modifications
Aside from the main conjugation, there are mutiple suffixes
and prefixes that are added for different meanings.
3.4.1 Grades of
relevancy
In a sentence with two clauses it is naturally assumed that
the verb is caused by the previous clause, or vice versa.
… qatac la. = … therefore I love myself.
However, to show that there is no relation with the previous
clause, the stem “-ya” is added to the verb.
… qatacya la. = … meanwhile I love myself. /qa.ta.ʃja la/
To show even further that there is no relation (equivalent
to saying “changing the subject” in English), the pronounciation of the stem is
altered with a hyphen.
… qatac-ya la. = ... changing the subject, I love
myself. /qa.taʃ.ja la/
To show that clauses contradict, use the suffix “-in”.
… qatacin la = on the other hand, I love myself.
3.4.2 Predecession
and negatives
The suffix “-yat” in verbs is equivalent to “before”.
Negatives are shown by the suffix “ö”.
3.4.3 Imperatives
and verb speed
To show a verb takes place quickly, the suffix “-oh” is
used. “-oloh” increases this speed.
The article "no" comes before the verb to show
imperatives.
3.4.4 Prefixes
To show a preposition that would otherwise be attached to
the indirect object – for example, “across” – a prefix will be added to the
verb.
He throws his hat = Uskital pas kovno
He throws his hat across the room = Reuskital pas kovno ha
gode
He throws his hat down the sink = Cuskital pas kovno ha itorve
He throws his hat into the ocean = Cuskital pas kovno ha
wliujine.
4: Sentence
formation and other notes
4:1
Sentence order
The standard sentence order, provided all nouns are fully
independent from prefixes and suffixes, is SVO. However, to show necessity, the
word order is OVS –since all parts of the sentence are specified, this does not
change the meaning.
4:2 Other
variants of “Ha”
To show the object is plural, or to show the equivalent of
saying “and”, “ha” becomes “hö”, and to show the equivalent of “or”, it becomes
“haya”.
4:3
Numerals
Charinese numbers operate on a base 8 system:
1
|
Na
|
9
|
Ena
|
17
|
Vo-Na
|
128
|
Vo-Kta
|
2
|
Vo
|
10
|
Evo
|
18
|
Vov
|
512
|
Ikta
|
3
|
Se
|
11
|
Ese
|
24
|
Sei
|
4096
|
Ukta
|
4
|
Ce
|
12
|
Ece
|
32
|
Sacei
|
32768
|
Ökta
|
5
|
Qe
|
13
|
Eqe
|
40
|
Qesei
|
262144
|
Ei-Kta
|
6
|
Qa
|
14
|
Eqa
|
48
|
Qusei
|
2097152
|
Ket-Kta
|
7
|
U
|
15
|
Yu
|
56
|
Usei
|
|
8
|
Ei
|
16
|
Vasei
|
64
|
Kta
|